Research writing conventions for academic and professional contexts. Covers the research process (question formation, literature review, methodology, evidence evaluation), academic genres (research paper, literature review, annotated bibliography, thesis/dissertation, conference paper), citation and attribution (MLA, APA, Chicago, IEEE, in-text vs. footnote, bibliography construction), source evaluation (CRAAP test, peer review, primary vs. secondary, bias detection), research argument construction (hypothesis-driven, question-driven, thesis as evolving claim), and ethical research practices (plagiarism, paraphrase integrity, IRB considerations, data transparency). Use when writing research papers, evaluating sources, constructing academic arguments, or teaching research methodology.
Research writing is argumentation grounded in systematic inquiry. It differs from personal essay or opinion writing not in the presence of a thesis but in the nature of the evidence: research writing draws on sources that have been found, evaluated, and synthesized through a disciplined process. The research paper is not a report of what others have said -- it is an original argument supported by a curated body of evidence. This skill covers the research process, academic genres, citation systems, source evaluation, argument construction, and ethical practice.
Agent affinity: orwell (argument clarity), baldwin (research as moral inquiry), calkins (teaching research process), strunk (citation precision)
Concept IDs: writ-textual-evidence, writ-close-reading, writ-thematic-analysis, writ-interpretive-frameworks
Research begins with a question, not a topic. "Climate change" is a topic. "How do carbon pricing mechanisms affect industrial emissions in developing economies?" is a research question. The question must be specific enough to be answerable, significant enough to be worth answering, and open enough that the answer is not predetermined.
The funnel model:
The working thesis is provisional -- it guides research but is revised as evidence accumulates.
A literature review is not a list of summaries. It is a map of the scholarly conversation: who has investigated this question, what methods they used, what they found, where they agree and disagree, and what remains unknown.
Structure options:
The gap statement. Every literature review ends by identifying what the existing research has not addressed. This gap is the justification for the current project.
Not all evidence is equal. The strength of a research argument depends on the quality of its sources.
The CRAAP Test:
| Criterion | Questions |
|---|---|
| Currency | When was it published? Has it been updated? Is the topic time-sensitive? |
| Relevance | Does it address your question? Who is the intended audience? |
| Authority | Who is the author? What are their credentials? Who published it? |
| Accuracy | Is the evidence supported? Can claims be verified? Is it peer-reviewed? |
| Purpose | Is the intent to inform, persuade, sell, or entertain? Are biases disclosed? |
Primary sources are original evidence: data, interviews, historical documents, literary texts, experiments, artifacts.
Secondary sources interpret, analyze, or synthesize primary sources: journal articles, reviews, textbooks, criticism.
Tertiary sources compile and summarize secondary sources: encyclopedias, databases, textbook surveys.
Research writing prioritizes primary and secondary sources. Tertiary sources are useful for orientation but should not be cited as evidence in a research argument.
An original argument supported by evidence from primary and/or secondary sources. The standard structure:
A comprehensive survey of existing research on a topic. Unlike the lit review section of a paper, a standalone review is the product -- it synthesizes the field, identifies trends, and proposes directions for future research.
A list of sources, each with a summary and evaluative annotation. The annotation is not a review but a research tool: what does this source argue, what evidence does it use, and how does it relate to your project?
Extended research arguments (50-300+ pages) that make an original contribution to a field. The thesis is the culmination of a degree program and must demonstrate mastery of the field, methodological competence, and original insight.
Shorter, more focused research presentations designed for oral delivery with accompanying written text. Conference papers often present work in progress and benefit from audience feedback before journal submission.
Citation is not bureaucratic formality. It is the mechanism by which scholarship builds on prior work, enables verification, credits intellectual labor, and maps the network of ideas. A missing citation is not just a formatting error -- it is a broken link in the chain of knowledge.
| System | Fields | In-Text Format | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| MLA | Humanities, literature | (Author Page) | (Baldwin 42) |
| APA | Social sciences, education | (Author, Year) | (Baldwin, 1955) |
| Chicago Notes | History, some humanities | Superscript footnote | Baldwin, Notes of a Native Son... |
| Chicago Author-Date | Sciences, social sciences | (Author Year) | (Baldwin 1955) |
| IEEE | Engineering, CS | [Number] | [3] |
Regardless of system:
Begin with a testable prediction. Design research to confirm or disconfirm it. Common in sciences and quantitative social sciences.
Structure: hypothesis -> methodology -> data collection -> analysis -> conclusion (hypothesis supported/refuted/modified).
Begin with an open question. Allow the evidence to shape the argument. Common in humanities and qualitative research.
Structure: question -> source gathering -> analysis -> emergent thesis -> argument construction.
The thesis at the end of the research process is rarely identical to the thesis at the beginning. Research changes what you think. An honest research paper acknowledges this evolution -- the strongest thesis is one that has been tested and refined by the evidence, not one that was fixed before the research began.
Research writing requires precision about the scope and confidence of claims:
| Qualifier | Strength | Use when |
|---|---|---|
| "This demonstrates" | Strong | Evidence is conclusive and directly relevant |
| "This suggests" | Moderate | Evidence supports but does not prove |
| "This may indicate" | Tentative | Evidence is preliminary or indirect |
| "Further research is needed" | Honest uncertainty | The question exceeds the current evidence |
Over-claiming undermines credibility. Under-claiming wastes the reader's time. Calibrate qualification to the evidence.
Plagiarism is presenting another person's ideas or words as your own. It includes:
The test is not "did I change enough words?" but "would a reader know where this idea came from?"
A legitimate paraphrase:
Patchwriting -- stitching together phrases from multiple sources with minor word changes -- is a form of plagiarism even when citations are present.
Research that involves data collection must be transparent about:
Selective reporting (presenting only results that support the thesis) is a form of intellectual dishonesty as serious as fabrication.