Dns Networking

TTL: time-to-live in seconds. Lower the TTL before a migration (300s), raise it after (3600–86400s). Always check the current TTL before making changes: dig +noall +answer example.com A.

IP addressing and subnetting

CIDR notation: 192.168.1.0/24 means a 24-bit network prefix, leaving 8 bits for hosts (254 usable after subtracting network and broadcast).

Private ranges (RFC 1918):

• 10.0.0.0/8 — 16M addresses; large networks and cloud VPCs
• 172.16.0.0/12 — 1M addresses; Docker default bridge range
• 192.168.0.0/16 — 65K addresses; home and office networks

Quick subnet math: /24 = 256, /25 = 128, /26 = 64, /27 = 32, /28 = 16 (subtract 2 for usable hosts).

Common protocols

TCP gives reliable ordered delivery with a 3-way handshake. UDP is connectionless and cheap — good when speed matters more than guaranteed delivery.

• HTTP / HTTPS — TCP 80 / 443; HTTPS adds TLS
• DNS — UDP 53 for queries, TCP 53 for zone transfers and large responses
• SSH — TCP 22 (key-based auth preferred)
• SMTP / IMAP — TCP 25/587, 143/993

TLS and HTTPS

Handshake order: ClientHello (supported ciphers, SNI), ServerHello (chosen cipher, certificate), key exchange, encrypted session. Common failure modes are expired certs, hostname mismatch, missing intermediate CA, and protocol version mismatch. Debug with curl -vI https://example.com or openssl s_client -connect example.com:443.

Port management

ss -tlnp                       # TCP listeners with process names
ss -ulnp                       # UDP listeners with process names
ss -tlnp sport = :443          # what is listening on 443?

Well-known ports: 0–1023 (root). Registered: 1024–49151. Ephemeral: 49152–65535.

Firewall basics

# ufw (Ubuntu/Debian)
ufw allow 80/tcp
ufw allow from 10.0.0.0/8 to any port 5432
ufw status numbered

# iptables (direct)
iptables -A INPUT -p tcp --dport 443 -j ACCEPT
iptables -A INPUT -s 192.168.1.0/24 -j ACCEPT
iptables -L -n --line-numbers

Always allow SSH (port 22) before enabling a firewall. Test rules before persisting.

Load balancing concepts

• Round-robin DNS — multiple A records, no health checking
• Reverse proxy (nginx/HAProxy) — L7, routes by path/header, health-checks backends
• Layer 4 LB — TCP-level forwarding, lowest overhead, no content inspection

Health checks should verify application readiness, not just TCP connectivity.

Diagnostic workflow

When something does not work, go bottom-up:

1. Name — dig example.com — does it resolve?
2. Reachability — ping -c 3 <ip> — is the host up?
3. Route — traceroute <ip> — where does the path break?
4. Port — curl -v telnet://<ip>:<port> — is the port open?
5. Application — curl -vI https://example.com — does the service respond correctly?

Gotchas

Agent-specific failure modes — provider-neutral pause-and-self-check items:

• Not lowering TTL before a DNS migration. Changing an A record with a 24-hour TTL means clients that cached the old value before the change will continue using the old IP for up to 24 hours. Lower the TTL to 300 seconds at least an hour before the change, complete the migration, verify, then raise it back. Skipping this step makes rollback window unpredictably long.
• Using a CNAME at the zone apex. A CNAME at the zone root (example.com, not www.example.com) conflicts with SOA and MX records and violates the DNS specification — many resolvers will silently drop one or the other. Use an ALIAS or ANAME record if your DNS provider supports it, or an A record pointing at a load balancer IP for the apex.
• Diagnosing DNS issues from a cached resolver instead of the authoritative server. dig example.com queries your default recursive resolver which may return a cached (and outdated) answer. Always compare dig @8.8.8.8 example.com (public cache) against dig @ns1.provider.com example.com (authoritative) to know what the actual current record is versus what is cached.
• Enabling a firewall without first allowing SSH. Adding a firewall rule that blocks all inbound traffic before ensuring port 22 (or the configured SSH port) is explicitly allowed will lock you out of the server. Always verify SSH access persists after adding firewall rules before saving them permanently.
• Assuming * * * in a traceroute means the host is down. A hop that shows * * * means that router rate-limits or drops ICMP TTL-exceeded messages — it is not forwarding the probe, but it may still be forwarding actual application traffic. Only conclude the path is broken if * * * continues from that hop onward with no subsequent hops responding.
• Testing TCP port reachability from outside the server without checking whether the service is listening inside. A port scan from an external client failing does not distinguish between "service not listening", "firewall blocking", or "routing problem". Add a check from inside the server itself (ss -tlnp sport = :<port>) to confirm the service is bound before concluding the issue is network-related.
• Diagnosing TLS errors without checking the full certificate chain. A TLS error may be caused by an expired leaf certificate, a missing intermediate CA certificate, or a hostname mismatch — all of which look similar in a browser error. Use openssl s_client -connect host:443 -showcerts to see the full chain, not just the end-entity certificate, so you know which certificate in the chain is the problem.

Full reference

DNS record syntax

; A and AAAA
example.com.    3600  IN  A     93.184.216.34
example.com.    3600  IN  AAAA  2606:2800:220:1:248:1893:25c8:1946

; CNAME
www.example.com.  3600  IN  CNAME  example.com.

; MX (lower priority tried first)
example.com.  3600  IN  MX  10  mail1.example.com.
example.com.  3600  IN  MX  20  mail2.example.com.

; TXT (SPF, DKIM, verification)
example.com.  3600  IN  TXT  "v=spf1 include:_spf.google.com ~all"
selector._domainkey.example.com.  3600  IN  TXT  "v=DKIM1; k=rsa; p=MIGf..."

; SRV: _service._proto.name TTL IN SRV priority weight port target
_sip._tcp.example.com.  3600  IN  SRV  10 60 5060 sip1.example.com.

; SOA
example.com.  86400  IN  SOA  ns1.provider.com. admin.example.com. (
    2024010101  ; serial
    3600        ; refresh
    900         ; retry
    604800      ; expire
    300         ; negative cache TTL
)

; PTR (reverse DNS, lives in in-addr.arpa)
34.216.184.93.in-addr.arpa.  3600  IN  PTR  example.com.

PTR records must be set at your IP provider (hosting/cloud), not your domain registrar. CNAMEs cannot live at the zone apex — use ALIAS/ANAME if your provider supports it, or a plain A record.

TCP vs UDP at a glance

HTTP status codes worth remembering

TLS handshake (1.3 vs 1.2)

• TLS 1.3 — single round-trip: ClientHello → ServerHello (cipher, key share, cert) → Finished. Encrypted communication begins.
• TLS 1.2 — two round-trips: ClientHello → ServerHello, then cert
  • key exchange, client verification, Finished.

Common TLS problems and checks:

# Expiration and dates
openssl s_client -connect host:443 < /dev/null 2>/dev/null \
  | openssl x509 -noout -dates
# Full chain (verify intermediates are sent)
openssl s_client -connect host:443 -showcerts < /dev/null
# Force a specific version
openssl s_client -connect host:443 -tls1_3
# SNI virtual-host workaround
curl --resolve host:443:IP https://host/

Enforce TLS 1.2+ minimum — 1.0/1.1 are obsolete.

dig recipes

dig example.com                      # default A lookup
dig example.com AAAA                 # IPv6
dig example.com MX                   # mail servers
dig example.com TXT                  # SPF/DKIM/verification
dig @8.8.8.8 example.com             # query a specific resolver
dig @ns1.provider.com example.com    # query authoritative directly
dig +trace example.com               # full resolution chain from root
dig +short example.com               # terse answer
dig +noall +answer example.com       # clean output with TTL
dig -x 93.184.216.34                 # reverse DNS lookup
dig @ns1.example.com example.com AXFR  # zone transfer (if permitted)

Path and reachability tools

# traceroute / tracepath
traceroute example.com
traceroute -T -p 443 example.com     # TCP trace (bypasses ICMP blocks)
traceroute -n example.com            # skip DNS lookups
tracepath example.com                # no root needed, discovers MTU

# mtr — live traceroute + packet loss stats
mtr example.com
mtr -rw -c 100 example.com           # report mode: 100 pkts, wide output
mtr -T -P 443 example.com            # TCP mode on port 443

# ping
ping -c 5 example.com
ping -c 5 -s 1472 example.com        # test large packets (MTU issues)

Reading traceroute: * * * at a single hop often means that router rate-limits ICMP and is not a real problem. * * * from a hop onward with no recovery means traffic is being dropped there. Increasing latency with distance is normal; sudden jumps indicate congestion.

curl debugging recipes

# Connection debugging
curl -v https://example.com                  # DNS, TCP, TLS, headers
curl -vI https://example.com                 # verbose + HEAD only
curl -v --trace-time https://example.com     # add timestamps

# DNS/routing control
curl --resolve example.com:443:93.184.216.34 https://example.com
curl -H "Host: example.com" http://10.0.0.5:80/
curl -4 https://example.com                  # force IPv4
curl -6 https://example.com                  # force IPv6

# TLS debugging
curl -vI https://example.com 2>&1 | grep -E 'SSL|TLS|subject|issuer|expire'
curl -k https://self-signed.example.com      # skip verification
curl --cacert /path/ca.pem https://internal  # custom CA

# Timing breakdown
curl -o /dev/null -s -w "\
  DNS:        %{time_namelookup}s\n\
  Connect:    %{time_connect}s\n\
  TLS:        %{time_appconnect}s\n\
  First byte: %{time_starttransfer}s\n\
  Total:      %{time_total}s\n" https://example.com

Socket statistics and packet capture

# ss (modern netstat replacement)
ss -tlnp                             # TCP listeners with processes
ss -ulnp                             # UDP listeners
ss -tlnp sport = :443                # who owns port 443?
ss -tn state established             # established TCP connections
ss -tn dst 10.0.0.5                  # connections to a host
ss -s                                # summary statistics

# tcpdump (requires root)
sudo tcpdump -i any port 53 -n                       # DNS traffic
sudo tcpdump -i any host 10.0.0.5 -n                 # host traffic
sudo tcpdump -i any port 80 -A -n                    # HTTP, ASCII dump
sudo tcpdump -i any -w capture.pcap port 443         # save for Wireshark
sudo tcpdump -i any 'tcp[tcpflags] & (tcp-syn) != 0' # SYN packets
sudo tcpdump -i any 'tcp[tcpflags] & (tcp-rst) != 0' # RST packets

Diagnostic workflow summary

Common scenarios

DNS record not propagating after change. Compare authoritative answer vs cached answer; verify the change actually reached the authoritative server; then wait for the old TTL to expire:

dig @8.8.8.8 example.com A              # public resolver (may be cached)
dig @ns1.provider.com example.com A     # authoritative (should be new)
dig +trace example.com A                # full resolution chain

Service unreachable on a specific port. Isolate DNS vs network vs