The Ethics and Governance Toolbox at a Glance

Technique 1 — The Law-Ethics Gap

Pattern: Law and ethics overlap substantially but are not the same. Something can be legal and unethical, or ethical and illegal. Recognizing the difference is the foundation of business ethics — a firm that reduces ethics to compliance has given up on ethics.

Four regions.

Worked example. A firm legally collects customer data and sells it to a third party. The terms of service technically authorize it. Customers, asked directly, would object. The practice is legal but ethically suspect. "We are in compliance" does not answer the ethical question; it answers a different question.

Discipline. The ethical-question check: "If every part of this decision were on the front page of a newspaper, would we defend it on its merits, or only on the technicality that we were allowed to do it?"

Technique 2 — Four Ethical Frameworks

Pattern: Moral philosophy offers several major frameworks for evaluating actions. No framework perfectly captures moral intuition, but each illuminates a dimension the others may miss. Applying more than one framework to the same decision reduces the risk of moral blind spots.

2a — Consequentialism (Utilitarianism)

Judge actions by their consequences. The right action produces the best outcomes on balance across all affected parties.

Strength. Forces consideration of who is affected and how. Weakness. Permits horrific acts in service of aggregate good if the math works out. Treats persons as vessels for utility.

2b — Deontology (Rights and Duties)

Judge actions by whether they respect duties and rights, regardless of consequences. Some actions are forbidden even if they produce better outcomes.

Strength. Respects persons as ends, not means. Resistant to utility calculations that rationalize wrongdoing. Weakness. Rigid in conflicts between duties. Can produce worse outcomes than consequentialism would accept.

2c — Virtue Ethics

Judge actions by whether they reflect and develop virtuous character. Asks "what would a person of good character do here?"

Strength. Integrates judgment and habit. Resists the mechanical application of rules. Weakness. Depends on prior agreement about what counts as virtue. Can justify status-quo traditions.

2d — Social Contract / Justice

Judge institutions and actions by whether they could be justified to all affected parties, especially the worst-off. Rawls's "veil of ignorance" is the exemplar.

Strength. Forces perspective-taking across positions of power. Grounds institutional legitimacy. Weakness. Hard to operationalize in firm-level decisions.

Practical protocol. For a non-trivial ethical decision, run it through all four frames. If they converge, confidence is high. If they diverge, the case is genuinely hard — and the divergence itself is informative.

Technique 3 — Stakeholder vs Shareholder

Pattern: Who does a firm exist to serve? The shareholder view (Friedman, 1970) says the firm exists to maximize returns for its owners, within the law. The stakeholder view (Freeman, 1984) says the firm exists to balance the interests of all groups with a legitimate stake — shareholders, employees, customers, suppliers, communities, and sometimes the environment and future generations.

Contrast.

Worked example. A firm can either close a legacy plant to reduce costs (shareholder win) or keep it open and retrain workers at a cost to returns (stakeholder balance). The shareholder frame gives a clean answer: close unless retention is net-present-value positive. The stakeholder frame produces a harder conversation but may reveal long-term costs (community reputation, workforce morale, political backlash) that the shareholder frame discounts.

Drucker's position. Drucker was closer to the stakeholder view decades before Freeman. In The Practice of Management (1954), he argued that the purpose of a business is to "create a customer" — a stakeholder framing that predates the shareholder-primacy doctrine's dominance by two decades.

Follett's position. Mary Parker Follett was further still in the stakeholder direction, arguing (in the 1920s) that the purpose of management was to integrate the interests of all parties to the enterprise, with integration as a creative act that exceeds compromise.

Technique 4 — Board Structure and Fiduciary Duty

Pattern: The board of directors is the body accountable to shareholders (in the shareholder model) or to the firm as an entity (in broader frames). Directors owe fiduciary duties — duties of loyalty and care — that are enforceable.

Key duties.

• Duty of care. Make decisions with the diligence, skill, and judgment a reasonably prudent person would use. Read materials, ask questions, do not rubber-stamp management.
• Duty of loyalty. Act in the firm's interest, not in the director's personal interest. Disclose conflicts; recuse where appropriate.
• Duty of good faith. Do not knowingly permit wrongdoing. Post-Enron, the duty of good faith has been strengthened.
• Business judgment rule. Courts defer to board decisions made in good faith, with adequate information, and without conflicts of interest. A decision can be wrong in hindsight and still protected.

Board composition. Boards typically include a mix of executive directors (inside the firm), non-executive directors (independent outsiders), and representatives of significant shareholders. Independent directors are important because they are the check on management; a board entirely composed of insiders cannot perform the oversight function credibly.

Startup reality. Early-stage firms often have boards consisting of the founder, one or two investors, and perhaps one independent. The smaller the board, the more each member's judgment matters. As firms grow, boards should add independents and committees (audit, compensation, nominating) to diffuse authority appropriately.

Technique 5 — Conflicts of Interest

Pattern: A conflict of interest exists when a decision-maker has a personal stake that could bias their judgment. Conflicts are not inherently wrong — everyone has interests — but unmanaged conflicts produce decisions captured by the decision-maker's side interest rather than by the firm's interest.

Management strategies.

1. Disclosure. The conflict is declared openly. Others can weigh the decision with knowledge of the interest.
2. Recusal. The conflicted party steps aside from the specific decision. Used when the conflict is material and disclosure alone is insufficient.
3. Structural separation. The institution is designed so the conflicted role does not have authority over the affected decision. Most robust, but costly.
4. Independent review. A disinterested party audits the decision after the fact.

Worked example. A startup CEO's brother runs a service the startup is considering purchasing. Options: (a) disclose the relationship to the board and let others decide; (b) recuse the CEO from the vendor decision entirely; (c) structurally, have procurement report to the CFO rather than the CEO for this category. Option (b) or (c) is appropriate when the conflict is material and ongoing; disclosure alone is insufficient when the conflicted party controls the outcome.

Technique 6 — Whistleblowing

Pattern: When an employee becomes aware of wrongdoing inside the firm, they face a choice: stay silent, raise it internally, or raise it externally (regulators, press). The ethical, legal, and personal consequences of each path are different.

Good internal channels reduce the need for external whistleblowing. A firm with a functioning ethics hotline, anti-retaliation policy, and independent audit committee handles most concerns internally. A firm without these channels pushes concerns underground or out — and external whistleblowing is the leading indicator of governance failure.

Legal protection. Many jurisdictions protect whistleblowers from retaliation when they report to regulators in good faith. Protections for internal whistleblowing are weaker in most places. The U.S. SEC whistleblower program pays rewards for information leading to enforcement actions, which has measurably increased external reports.

Manager's obligation. Managers who learn of wrongdoing from employees have an obligation to act. Inaction is not neutral — it is often complicity. Acting includes documenting the report, escalating through appropriate channels, and protecting the reporter from retaliation.

Technique 7 — CSR and ESG

Pattern: Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is the broad tradition of firms accepting responsibilities beyond profit. ESG — Environmental, Social, Governance — is the more recent, more metricized framework used by investors to screen firms on non-financial criteria.

ESG components.

• Environmental. Carbon footprint, water use, waste, biodiversity, climate transition plan.
• Social. Workforce diversity, labor practices, supply chain ethics, community relations, product safety.
• Governance. Board composition, executive compensation, audit independence, anti-corruption, political spending.

Business relevance. A firm that ignores ESG faces three pressures: (1) investors screening on ESG criteria may pass, (2) customers increasingly ask about supply-chain ethics, (3) regulators in multiple jurisdictions are building disclosure requirements into law.

ESG criticism. The ESG movement has been criticized for inconsistent metrics (different ratings agencies disagree about which firms are "good"), for greenwashing (firms reporting ESG without changing behavior), and for distracting from direct regulation. A sophisticated firm engages with ESG frameworks while recognizing their limitations.

Technique 8 — Compliance vs Culture

Pattern: A compliance program installs rules and enforces them. A culture makes the behavior feel natural. A firm with good compliance and bad culture has scandals that take months to surface. A firm with good culture and weak compliance has fewer scandals but is vulnerable when good people leave.

Post-Enron consensus. After the 2001 Enron collapse and the 2002 Sarbanes-Oxley Act, compliance functions in large firms grew substantially. The honest retrospective is that compliance alone did not prevent subsequent scandals (2008 financial crisis, Wells Fargo account fraud, 2015 Volkswagen emissions). What fails is usually culture, not rules.

Diagnostic questions for ethical culture.

1. Does leadership model the standard? Subordinates copy what leaders do, not what they say.
2. Are bad news messengers rewarded or punished? A firm that shoots messengers stops receiving bad news.
3. Are incentive structures aligned with ethical conduct? Wells Fargo set cross-sales targets that were unreachable without fraud; the fraud was the predictable response.
4. Is there a functioning escalation path? Employees should know how to raise concerns and trust that they will be handled.
5. Are ethical failures investigated and publicly addressed? A firm that hides small failures invites large ones.

Technique 9 — Stakeholder Mapping

Pattern: Before a non-trivial decision, map the stakeholders: who is affected, how, and with what legitimate interest. This is the applied form of the stakeholder view.

Template.

Use. The map reveals who should be consulted, whose interests are at risk of being overlooked, and where the decision has political exposure. It does not tell you what to do — it tells you whose concerns you must honestly weigh.

Technique 10 — The Newspaper Test

Pattern: A quick heuristic for ethical decisions under time pressure. Ask: "If my decision were reported accurately in tomorrow's newspaper, would I be embarrassed? Would my stakeholders be embarrassed? Could I defend the decision on its merits, or only on the technicality that I was not caught?"

Strength. Fast, portable, and catches most cases where compliance-thinking diverges from ethical judgment. Most ethical failures fail the newspaper test; the decision-maker was betting on opacity.

Weakness. Depends on the decision-maker's sense of shame and on an informed public. A decision-maker with no shame, or a public that would not care, passes the test and still does wrong. The newspaper test is necessary, not sufficient.

When to use. As a gating check on decisions the decision-maker is uncertain about. If the newspaper test fails, the decision needs more analysis. If it passes, the decision still may need more analysis, but the first red flag is not raised.

Decision Guidance

1. Does this feel legal but wrong? Law-ethics gap check.
2. Non-trivial dilemma? Run all four ethical frameworks.
3. Whose interests count here? Stakeholder vs shareholder framing.
4. Designing governance? Board structure, fiduciary duty, independent directors.
5. Personal stake in the decision? Disclose, recuse, or separate.
6. Wrongdoing observed? Internal channels first; external if they are broken or captured.
7. Investor and customer pressure on non-financials? Engage ESG honestly.
8. Rules and scandals coexisting? Diagnose culture, not just compliance.
9. Unsure who is affected? Stakeholder map.
10. No time for full analysis? Newspaper test as a minimum.

References

• Drucker, P. F. (1954). The Practice of Management. Harper & Brothers.
• Follett, M. P. (1942). Dynamic Administration. Harper.
• Freeman, R. E. (1984). Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach. Pitman.
• Friedman, M. (1970). "The Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits." New York Times Magazine, September 13.
• Rawls, J. (1971). A Theory of Justice. Harvard University Press.
• Bainbridge, S. M. (2012). Corporate Governance after the Financial Crisis. Oxford University Press.
• Paine, L. S. (2003). Value Shift: Why Companies Must Merge Social and Financial Imperatives. McGraw-Hill.
• Mintzberg, H. (1983). Power In and Around Organizations. Prentice-Hall.