Verbal Behavior

The mand is the only verbal operant that directly benefits the speaker. It is typically the first operant targeted in early language intervention because it teaches the learner that verbal behavior produces specific outcomes.

Mand Training Procedures

1. Identify a strong EO — the learner must want the item (deprivation, contrived EO, or captured natural EO).
2. Present the item or activity (may serve as both EO and SD).
3. Prompt the target response (echoic prompt, model, sign prompt, picture exchange).
4. Deliver the specified reinforcer immediately (not a generalized reinforcer — the learner gets the thing they manded for).
5. Fade prompts systematically using time delay.
6. Thin the schedule and transfer control to natural EOs.

Tact

• Antecedent control: A nonverbal discriminative stimulus — something the individual sees, hears, smells, touches, or experiences.
• Response: A verbal response that "names" or describes the stimulus.
• Consequence: Generalized conditioned reinforcement (praise, acknowledgment, social interaction).
• Example: A child sees a dog and says "dog." The nonverbal stimulus (the dog) controls the response, and generalized social reinforcement maintains it.

The tact is critical for the development of descriptive and referential language. It expands the individual's ability to share information about their environment.

Tact Training Procedures

1. Present the nonverbal stimulus (object, picture, action, property).
2. Ask "What is it?" or present a nonverbal expectant cue.
3. Prompt the target response if needed (echoic prompt).
4. Deliver generalized reinforcement (not the specific item — delivering the item would convert the response to a mand).
5. Teach across multiple exemplars to establish a generalized tact repertoire.

Echoic

• Antecedent control: A verbal auditory stimulus (someone else's speech).
• Response: A vocal response with point-to-point correspondence and formal similarity to the auditory stimulus.
• Consequence: Generalized conditioned reinforcement.
• Example: An adult says "ball" and the child repeats "ball."

The echoic repertoire is foundational — it enables prompting for mands, tacts, and intraverbals. Without an echoic repertoire, alternative response topographies (sign, PECS, AAC device) are used.

Intraverbal

• Antecedent control: A verbal stimulus (spoken or written) — there is no point-to-point correspondence between the stimulus and the response.
• Response: A verbal response that is thematically or associatively related to the verbal stimulus.
• Consequence: Generalized conditioned reinforcement.
• Examples: Someone says "What color is grass?" → "Green." Someone says "How are you?" → "Fine." Someone says "Twinkle twinkle little..." → "Star."

Intraverbal behavior is the basis of conversational language, answering questions, academic responding, and social interaction. It is one of the most complex operants to teach because there is no physical referent present — the learner must respond based on relational history alone.

Intraverbal Training Procedures

1. Fill-in-the-blank: Begin with highly predictable verbal sequences (songs, rhymes, common phrases) and fade the lead-in.
2. WH-questions: Start with "what" questions about known tacts, then expand to "where," "who," "when," "why," "how."
3. Feature, function, class (FFC): "What do you ride?" → "Bike." "What has wheels?" → "Car."
4. Transfer procedures: Transfer from tact to intraverbal (present the object, tact it, remove the object, ask the question).

Textual

• Antecedent control: A written verbal stimulus (printed text).
• Response: A vocal response with point-to-point correspondence to the text.
• Consequence: Generalized conditioned reinforcement.
• Example: The child sees the word "cat" and says "cat."

This is reading aloud — not reading comprehension, which involves additional operants (intraverbal, tact).

Transcription

• Antecedent control: A verbal stimulus (spoken or written).
• Response: A written response with point-to-point correspondence to the stimulus.
• Two forms:
  • Dictation: Writing from a spoken stimulus (hearing "cat" and writing "cat").
  • Copying a text: Writing from a written stimulus (seeing "cat" and writing "cat").

Autoclitic

Autoclitics are secondary verbal operants — verbal behavior about the speaker's own verbal behavior. They modify the effect of other verbal operants on the listener. Autoclitics are essential for generating grammatically correct, nuanced, and effective communication.

Types of Autoclitics

• Descriptive autoclitic: Describes the speaker's own verbal behavior. "I think it's a dog" — "I think" describes the speaker's certainty about the tact "dog."
• Qualifying autoclitic: Modifies the strength or direction of the listener's response. "No, it's not a cat" — "no" and "not" qualify the statement.
• Quantifying autoclitic: Specifies an amount. "Some dogs," "all cats," "three birds."
• Relational autoclitic: Relates verbal operants to one another through syntax and grammar. Prepositions, conjunctions, articles, word order — "The ball is on the table" vs. "The ball is under the table."
• Autoclitic frames: Partially filled verbal structures in which new tacts, mands, or intraverbals can be inserted. "I want ___," "That is a ___," "I see a ___ and a ___." These frames enable generative language — the learner produces novel utterances by inserting new operants into established frames.

Multiple Control

Convergent Multiple Control

A single verbal response is controlled by more than one variable simultaneously. A child at the dinner table who says "more juice" may be under the combined control of an MO (thirst — mand component) and a nonverbal SD (the juice pitcher — tact component). Convergent control produces stronger, more contextually appropriate responses.

Divergent Multiple Control

A single stimulus can evoke different verbal operants depending on the controlling variables. The sight of a ball could evoke:

• Tact: "Ball" (nonverbal SD controls).
• Mand: "Ball!" (EO — the child wants the ball).
• Intraverbal: "Ball" in response to "What do you kick?" (verbal stimulus controls).

The same form of the response ("ball") has different functions depending on the controlling antecedent. Teaching across all operant functions ensures the learner has flexible, functional language rather than rote responding.

Verbal Behavior Assessment: VB-MAPP

The Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program (VB-MAPP; Sundberg, 2008) maps directly onto Skinner's verbal operant classification. It assesses:

• Milestones: Mand, tact, echoic, intraverbal, listener responding, motor imitation, visual perceptual skills, play, social behavior, reading, writing, math, linguistics, and group/classroom skills across three developmental levels (0–18, 18–30, 30–48 months).
• Barriers: 24 common barriers to language and learning (e.g., prompt dependency, weak mand repertoire, defective tact, impaired echoic, absence of intraverbal).
• Transition: Skills needed for less restrictive educational settings.
• Task analysis and skills tracking: Detailed skill targets for each operant.

The VB-MAPP guides intervention by identifying which operants are absent or weak, which barriers are present, and where to target instruction.

Listener Behavior vs Speaker Behavior

• Speaker behavior: The individual produces verbal behavior (mands, tacts, echoics, intraverbals). The speaker's behavior is reinforced through the mediation of the listener.
• Listener behavior: The individual responds to someone else's verbal behavior. Listener behavior includes following instructions, selecting named items (receptive identification), and complying with mands.

Listener and speaker repertoires are functionally independent — a child may be able to select "dog" from an array when told "Touch dog" (listener) but may not be able to tact a dog when asked "What is it?" (speaker). Teaching one does not automatically produce the other. Both must be assessed and taught directly.

Verbal Behavior Approach vs Traditional Language Therapy

The VB approach does not reject structural language analysis — it adds a functional layer that guides more precise, individualized instruction. Many effective programs integrate both perspectives.

Key References

• Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. Appleton-Century-Crofts.
• Sundberg, M. L. (2008). VB-MAPP: Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program. AVB Press.
• Sundberg, M. L., & Michael, J. (2001). The benefits of Skinner's analysis of verbal behavior for children with autism. Behavior Modification, 25(5), 698–724.
• Sundberg, M. L., & Partington, J. W. (1998). Teaching Language to Children with Autism or Other Developmental Disabilities. AVB Press.
• Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2020). Applied Behavior Analysis (3rd ed.). Pearson.
• Greer, R. D., & Ross, D. E. (2008). Verbal Behavior Analysis: Inducing and Expanding New Verbal Capabilities in Children with Language Delays. Pearson.