Comparative Politics

QoG (Quality of Government) is maintained by the University of Gothenburg. The standard dataset (qog_std_cs_jan23.csv or time-series qog_std_ts_jan23.csv) aggregates ~2,000 variables from over 100 sources. Key governance variables:

Polity 5 (Marshall & Gurr, 2020) codes democracy and autocracy on -10 to +10 scale:

• ≤ -6: full autocracy
• -5 to +5: hybrid (anocracy)
• ≥ +6: democracy

Special codes: -66 (interruption), -77 (interregnum), -88 (transition) — replace with NA.

Freedom House provides Political Rights (PR) and Civil Liberties (CL) scores (1-7 each, lower = more free). Combined score (14 = least free, 2 = most free). Status: Free/Partly Free/ Not Free.

Panel regression with FE: The within transformation demeans all variables by entity (country) mean, removing all time-invariant country characteristics (culture, geography, history). linearmodels PanelOLS with entity_effects=True implements this. Standard errors should be clustered at the country level.

Hausman test: Compares FE and RE estimates. Under H0 (RE consistent), both estimators agree. Rejection of H0 → use FE. linearmodels provides the compare function for this test.

Democratic backsliding: A 3-year rolling decline in Polity score below a threshold (e.g., -3 points). Distinguished from transitions that start from democratic levels (±6 threshold).

Environment Setup

pip install pandas>=1.5 statsmodels>=0.14 linearmodels>=4.28 numpy>=1.23 matplotlib>=3.6

Download datasets:

• QoG: https://www.qogdata.pol.gu.se/data/qog_std_ts_jan23.csv
• Polity 5: https://www.systemicpeace.org/inscrdata.html (p5v2018.xls)
• Freedom House: https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/2023-02/All_data_FIW_2013-2023.xlsx

export QOG_PATH="/data/qog_std_ts_jan23.csv"
export POLITY_PATH="/data/p5v2018.xls"
export FH_PATH="/data/FIW_2013-2023.xlsx"

Core Workflow

import os
import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import matplotlib.cm as cm
from scipy import stats
import statsmodels.api as sm
import warnings
warnings.filterwarnings("ignore")


# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
# 1. Load and Harmonize QoG Data
# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

QOG_KEY_VARS = [
    "cname", "ccodealp", "year",
    "wbgi_cce", "wbgi_rle", "wbgi_gee",
    "wdi_gdpcapcon2015", "wdi_pop",
    "undp_hdi",
]


def load_qog(path: str, variables: list[str] | None = None,
             years: tuple[int, int] | None = None) -> pd.DataFrame:
    """
    Load the QoG time-series dataset.

    Parameters
    ----------
    path : str
        Path to QoG standard time-series CSV.
    variables : list of str, optional
        Variables to retain; always includes cname, ccodealp, year.
    years : tuple, optional
        Year range filter.

    Returns
    -------
    pd.DataFrame standardized with columns: country, iso3, year, and requested variables.
    """
    header = pd.read_csv(path, nrows=0)
    keep = list(set(["cname", "ccodealp", "year"] + (variables or QOG_KEY_VARS)))
    use = [c for c in keep if c in header.columns]
    df = pd.read_csv(path, usecols=use, low_memory=False)
    if years:
        df = df[(df["year"] >= years[0]) & (df["year"] <= years[1])]
    df = df.rename(columns={"cname": "country", "ccodealp": "iso3"})
    return df.sort_values(["country", "year"]).reset_index(drop=True)


# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
# 2. Load Polity 5 and Classify Regime Types
# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

POLITY_SPECIAL_CODES = {-66, -77, -88}


def load_polity5(path: str) -> pd.DataFrame:
    """
    Load Polity 5 dataset from Excel file.

    Returns
    -------
    pd.DataFrame with: iso3, country, year, polity2, regime_type.
    """
    df = pd.read_excel(path, sheet_name=0)
    # Standardize column names (different versions use different names)
    df.columns = [c.lower().strip() for c in df.columns]
    rename_map = {}
    for col in df.columns:
        if "scode" in col or col == "country":
            rename_map[col] = "country" if "country" in col else "iso_scode"
        if col in ("polity2", "polity"):
            rename_map[col] = "polity2"
    df = df.rename(columns=rename_map)

    # Keep key columns
    keep = [c for c in ["scode", "country", "year", "polity2", "democ", "autoc"] if c in df.columns]
    df = df[keep].copy()

    # Replace special Polity codes with NaN
    if "polity2" in df.columns:
        df["polity2"] = pd.to_numeric(df["polity2"], errors="coerce")
        df.loc[df["polity2"].isin(POLITY_SPECIAL_CODES), "polity2"] = np.nan
        df["regime_type"] = pd.cut(
            df["polity2"],
            bins=[-11, -6, 5, 10],
            labels=["Autocracy", "Hybrid/Anocracy", "Democracy"],
        )
    return df


def classify_regime(polity_score: float) -> str:
    """Classify a single Polity 2 score into regime type."""
    if pd.isna(polity_score):
        return "Unknown"
    if polity_score <= -6:
        return "Autocracy"
    if polity_score >= 6:
        return "Democracy"
    return "Hybrid/Anocracy"


# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
# 3. Load Freedom House
# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

def load_freedom_house(path: str) -> pd.DataFrame:
    """
    Load Freedom House FIW data from Excel.

    Returns
    -------
    pd.DataFrame with: country, year, fh_pr, fh_cl, fh_total, fh_status.
    """
    # FH Excel typically has multiple sheets; try the main country scores sheet
    try:
        df = pd.read_excel(path, sheet_name="FIW06-23", header=1)
    except Exception:
        df = pd.read_excel(path, header=0)

    df.columns = [str(c).strip() for c in df.columns]
    # Typical columns: Country/Territory, C/T, Edition, Status, PR, CL, Total
    rename = {
        "Country/Territory": "country",
        "Edition": "year",
        "Status": "fh_status",
        "PR": "fh_pr",
        "CL": "fh_cl",
        "Total": "fh_total",
    }
    df = df.rename(columns={k: v for k, v in rename.items() if k in df.columns})
    keep = [c for c in ["country", "year", "fh_pr", "fh_cl", "fh_total", "fh_status"] if c in df.columns]
    return df[keep].dropna(subset=["country", "year"]).copy()


# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
# 4. Merge Panel Datasets
# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

def build_comparative_panel(
    qog_df: pd.DataFrame,
    polity_df: pd.DataFrame,
    fh_df: pd.DataFrame | None = None,
) -> pd.DataFrame:
    """
    Merge QoG, Polity 5, and (optionally) Freedom House into a country-year panel.

    Merge key: country name + year (fuzzy ISO3 matching as fallback).

    Returns
    -------
    pd.DataFrame — merged country-year panel.
    """
    panel = qog_df.copy()

    # Merge Polity 5
    if "country" in polity_df.columns and "year" in polity_df.columns:
        panel = panel.merge(
            polity_df[["country", "year", "polity2", "regime_type"]],
            on=["country", "year"],
            how="left",
        )

    # Merge Freedom House
    if fh_df is not None and "country" in fh_df.columns:
        fh_keep = [c for c in ["country", "year", "fh_pr", "fh_cl", "fh_total", "fh_status"] if c in fh_df.columns]
        panel = panel.merge(fh_df[fh_keep], on=["country", "year"], how="left")

    # Log GDP
    if "wdi_gdpcapcon2015" in panel.columns:
        panel["log_gdppc"] = np.log(panel["wdi_gdpcapcon2015"].clip(lower=1))
    if "wdi_pop" in panel.columns:
        panel["log_pop"] = np.log(panel["wdi_pop"].clip(lower=1))

    return panel.sort_values(["country", "year"]).reset_index(drop=True)


# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
# 5. Panel Regression with Country + Year FE
# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

def panel_fe_regression(
    panel: pd.DataFrame,
    outcome: str,
    predictors: list[str],
    country_col: str = "country",
    year_col: str = "year",
    entity_effects: bool = True,
    time_effects: bool = True,
) -> object:
    """
    Run panel OLS with optional entity and time fixed effects (linearmodels).

    Parameters
    ----------
    panel : pd.DataFrame
    outcome : str
        Dependent variable.
    predictors : list of str
    entity_effects : bool
        Country fixed effects (within-estimator).
    time_effects : bool
        Year fixed effects.

    Returns
    -------
    linearmodels PanelResults object.
    """
    from linearmodels.panel import PanelOLS, RandomEffects

    sub = panel[[country_col, year_col, outcome] + predictors].dropna().copy()
    sub = sub.set_index([country_col, year_col])
    endog = sub[outcome]
    exog = sm.add_constant(sub[predictors])

    model = PanelOLS(
        endog, exog,
        entity_effects=entity_effects,
        time_effects=time_effects,
    )
    return model.fit(cov_type="clustered", cluster_entity=True)


# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
# 6. Democratic Backsliding Detection
# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

def detect_backsliding(
    panel: pd.DataFrame,
    polity_col: str = "polity2",
    window: int = 3,
    threshold: float = 3.0,
    country_col: str = "country",
    year_col: str = "year",
) -> pd.DataFrame:
    """
    Flag country-years where the rolling Polity 2 score declined by threshold
    points over the preceding window years, starting from a democratic baseline (≥+6).

    Parameters
    ----------
    panel : pd.DataFrame
    polity_col : str
    window : int
        Rolling lookback in years.
    threshold : float
        Minimum absolute decline to flag.
    country_col : str
    year_col : str

    Returns
    -------
    pd.DataFrame of backsliding episodes, sorted by severity.
    """
    df = panel.sort_values([country_col, year_col]).copy()
    df["polity_lag"] = df.groupby(country_col)[polity_col].shift(window)
    df["polity_change"] = df[polity_col] - df["polity_lag"]

    episodes = df[
        (df["polity_change"] <= -threshold) &
        (df["polity_lag"] >= 6)
    ].copy()
    episodes["severity"] = episodes["polity_change"].abs()
    return (
        episodes[[country_col, year_col, polity_col, "polity_lag", "polity_change", "severity"]]
        .sort_values("severity", ascending=False)
        .reset_index(drop=True)
    )

Advanced Usage

Hausman Test for FE vs. RE

import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
import statsmodels.api as sm
import warnings
warnings.filterwarnings("ignore")


def hausman_test(fe_result, re_result) -> dict:
    """
    Hausman specification test: H0 = RE is consistent (both FE and RE agree).

    Parameters
    ----------
    fe_result : linearmodels PanelResults (entity_effects=True, time_effects=False)
    re_result : linearmodels PanelResults (RandomEffects)

    Returns
    -------
    dict with test_stat, df, pvalue, conclusion.
    """
    from scipy.stats import chi2

    b_fe = fe_result.params
    b_re = re_result.params

    # Align common variables
    common = b_fe.index.intersection(b_re.index)
    diff = b_fe[common] - b_re[common]

    # Variance difference
    v_fe = fe_result.cov.loc[common, common]
    v_re = re_result.cov.loc[common, common]
    v_diff = v_fe - v_re

    try:
        # Moore-Penrose pseudo-inverse for potentially singular matrix
        v_inv = np.linalg.pinv(v_diff.values)
        stat = float(diff.values @ v_inv @ diff.values)
    except np.linalg.LinAlgError:
        return {"test_stat": np.nan, "df": len(common), "pvalue": np.nan,
                "conclusion": "Hausman test failed (singular matrix)"}

    df_h = len(common)
    pvalue = 1 - chi2.cdf(stat, df_h)
    conclusion = "Use FE (reject RE)" if pvalue < 0.05 else "RE preferred (fail to reject)"
    return {
        "test_stat": round(stat, 4),
        "df": df_h,
        "pvalue": round(pvalue, 4),
        "conclusion": conclusion,
    }

Troubleshooting

External Resources

• QoG Dataset: https://www.qogdata.pol.gu.se/
• Polity 5 Project: https://www.systemicpeace.org/polityproject.html
• Freedom House: https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world
• Teorell, J. et al. (2023). The Quality of Government Standard Dataset. University of Gothenburg.
• Marshall, M.G. & Gurr, T.R. (2020). Polity 5: Political Regime Characteristics and Transitions, 1800–2018. Center for Systemic Peace.
• Lipset, S.M. (1959). Some social requisites of democracy. APSR, 53(1), 69-105.

Examples

Example 1: Merge QoG + Polity + FH and Classify Regimes

import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

rng = np.random.default_rng(42)
countries_list = [f"Country_{i:02d}" for i in range(1, 51)]
years_list = list(range(2000, 2023))

records_qog, records_polity = [], []
for ctr in countries_list:
    base_polity = rng.integers(-10, 11)
    base_gdp = rng.lognormal(9, 1.5)
    for yr in years_list:
        drift = rng.integers(-1, 2)
        polity_val = int(np.clip(base_polity + drift + rng.integers(-1, 2), -10, 10))
        records_qog.append({
            "country": ctr, "iso3": ctr[:3].upper(),
            "year": yr,
            "wbgi_cce": rng.normal(0, 1),
            "wbgi_rle": rng.normal(0, 1),
            "wdi_gdpcapcon2015": base_gdp * rng.lognormal(0, 0.05),
            "wdi_pop": rng.lognormal(15, 1),
        })
        records_polity.append({
            "country": ctr, "year": yr, "polity2": polity_val,
            "regime_type": classify_regime(polity_val),
        })

df_qog_sim = pd.DataFrame(records_qog)
df_polity_sim = pd.DataFrame(records_polity)

panel = build_comparative_panel(df_qog_sim, df_polity_sim)

# Regime distribution over time
regime_counts = panel.groupby(["year", "regime_type"]).size().unstack(fill_value=0)
fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(12, 5))
regime_counts.plot(kind="area", stacked=True, ax=ax, colormap="RdYlGn", alpha=0.8)
ax.set_title("Global Regime Distribution Over Time (Polity 5 Classification)")
ax.set_ylabel("Number of Countries")
ax.set_xlabel("Year")
ax.legend(title="Regime Type")
plt.tight_layout()
plt.savefig("regime_distribution.png", dpi=150)
plt.show()

print("\nRegime counts (latest year):")
print(panel[panel["year"] == panel["year"].max()]["regime_type"].value_counts())

Example 2: Within-Country FE Regression — Corruption and GDP

import numpy as np
import pandas as pd

# Using the simulated panel from Example 1
panel_reg = panel.copy()
panel_reg["log_gdppc"] = np.log(panel_reg["wdi_gdpcapcon2015"].clip(lower=1))

result_fe = panel_fe_regression(
    panel_reg,
    outcome="wbgi_cce",
    predictors=["log_gdppc"],
    entity_effects=True,
    time_effects=True,
)
print("=== Country+Year FE: GDP per capita → Corruption Control ===")
print(result_fe.summary.tables[1])
print(f"\nWithin R²: {result_fe.rsquared:.4f}")

Example 3: Democratic Backsliding Detection and Trend Plot

import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Detect backsliding in the simulated panel
episodes = detect_backsliding(
    panel,
    polity_col="polity2",
    window=3,
    threshold=3.0,
)
print(f"=== Democratic Backsliding Episodes (n={len(episodes)}) ===")
print(episodes.head(10).to_string(index=False))

# Rolling 3-year polity change (global average)
panel_sorted = panel.sort_values(["country", "year"])
panel_sorted["polity_lag3"] = panel_sorted.groupby("country")["polity2"].shift(3)
panel_sorted["polity_delta3"] = panel_sorted["polity2"] - panel_sorted["polity_lag3"]

global_delta = panel_sorted.groupby("year")["polity_delta3"].mean()

fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(11, 5))
ax.bar(global_delta.index, global_delta.values,
       color=["#d73027" if v < 0 else "#4575b4" for v in global_delta.values], alpha=0.8)
ax.axhline(0, color="black", linewidth=0.8)
ax.set_title("Mean 3-Year Change in Polity Score (Global Average)")
ax.set_xlabel("Year")
ax.set_ylabel("Mean Polity Change (3-year)")
ax.grid(True, axis="y", alpha=0.3)
plt.tight_layout()
plt.savefig("polity_backsliding_trend.png", dpi=150)
plt.show()

# Lipset scatter: GDP vs Polity
latest = panel[panel["year"] == panel["year"].max()].dropna(subset=["log_gdppc", "polity2"])
fig2, ax2 = plt.subplots(figsize=(9, 6))
scatter = ax2.scatter(latest["log_gdppc"], latest["polity2"], alpha=0.7,
                       c=pd.Categorical(latest["regime_type"]).codes,
                       cmap="RdYlGn", edgecolors="white", s=60, linewidths=0.4)
slope, intercept, r, p, se = stats.linregress(latest["log_gdppc"], latest["polity2"])
x_line = np.linspace(latest["log_gdppc"].min(), latest["log_gdppc"].max(), 100)
ax2.plot(x_line, intercept + slope * x_line, "r--", linewidth=1.5, label=f"OLS (r={r:.2f})")
ax2.set_xlabel("log(GDP per capita, constant 2015 USD)")
ax2.set_ylabel("Polity 2 Score")
ax2.set_title("Lipset's Modernization Hypothesis: GDP vs. Democracy")
ax2.axhline(6, color="gray", linestyle=":", linewidth=1, label="Democracy threshold (+6)")
ax2.axhline(-6, color="gray", linestyle=":", linewidth=1, label="Autocracy threshold (-6)")
ax2.legend(fontsize=8)
ax2.grid(True, alpha=0.3)
plt.tight_layout()
plt.savefig("lipset_scatter.png", dpi=150)
plt.show()

from scipy import stats