Sql Patterns

-- INNER JOIN: Only matching rows
SELECT u.name, o.total
FROM users u
INNER JOIN orders o ON u.id = o.user_id;

-- LEFT JOIN: All left rows + matching right
SELECT u.name, COUNT(o.id) as order_count
FROM users u
LEFT JOIN orders o ON u.id = o.user_id
GROUP BY u.id, u.name;

-- Use table aliases consistently

Avoid N+1 Queries

-- Bad: Query per user for orders
-- Application loops and queries

-- Good: Single query with JOIN
SELECT u.id, u.name, o.id as order_id, o.total
FROM users u
LEFT JOIN orders o ON u.id = o.user_id
WHERE u.active = true;

Aggregations

GROUP BY

SELECT
    category,
    COUNT(*) as product_count,
    AVG(price) as avg_price,
    SUM(quantity) as total_quantity
FROM products
GROUP BY category
HAVING COUNT(*) > 10;

Window Functions

-- Running totals
SELECT
    date,
    amount,
    SUM(amount) OVER (ORDER BY date) as running_total
FROM transactions;

-- Rank within groups
SELECT
    category,
    name,
    price,
    RANK() OVER (PARTITION BY category ORDER BY price DESC) as price_rank
FROM products;

-- Previous/next values
SELECT
    date,
    amount,
    LAG(amount) OVER (ORDER BY date) as prev_amount,
    LEAD(amount) OVER (ORDER BY date) as next_amount
FROM transactions;

Indexing

When to Index

-- Primary keys (automatic)
-- Foreign keys
CREATE INDEX idx_orders_user_id ON orders(user_id);

-- Frequently filtered columns
CREATE INDEX idx_users_email ON users(email);

-- Composite indexes (order matters)
CREATE INDEX idx_orders_user_status ON orders(user_id, status);

Index Guidelines

• Index columns in WHERE, JOIN, ORDER BY
• Put equality conditions first in composite indexes
• Consider partial indexes for filtered queries
• Don't over-index (slows writes)

-- Partial index
CREATE INDEX idx_active_users ON users(email)
WHERE active = true;

-- Covering index
CREATE INDEX idx_orders_covering
ON orders(user_id, status)
INCLUDE (total, created_at);

Common Table Expressions (CTEs)

Readable Queries

WITH active_users AS (
    SELECT id, name
    FROM users
    WHERE active = true
),
user_orders AS (
    SELECT user_id, COUNT(*) as order_count
    FROM orders
    WHERE created_at >= CURRENT_DATE - INTERVAL '30 days'
    GROUP BY user_id
)
SELECT
    u.name,
    COALESCE(o.order_count, 0) as recent_orders
FROM active_users u
LEFT JOIN user_orders o ON u.id = o.user_id;

Recursive CTEs

-- Hierarchical data (org chart, categories)
WITH RECURSIVE category_tree AS (
    -- Base case
    SELECT id, name, parent_id, 0 as depth
    FROM categories
    WHERE parent_id IS NULL

    UNION ALL

    -- Recursive case
    SELECT c.id, c.name, c.parent_id, ct.depth + 1
    FROM categories c
    INNER JOIN category_tree ct ON c.parent_id = ct.id
)
SELECT * FROM category_tree;

Transactions

ACID Compliance

BEGIN;

UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance - 100 WHERE id = 1;
UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance + 100 WHERE id = 2;

-- Verify
SELECT id, balance FROM accounts WHERE id IN (1, 2);

COMMIT;
-- or ROLLBACK on error;

Isolation Levels

-- Read committed (default in PostgreSQL)
SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL READ COMMITTED;

-- Serializable (strictest)
SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL SERIALIZABLE;

Performance Optimization

EXPLAIN ANALYZE

EXPLAIN ANALYZE
SELECT u.name, COUNT(o.id)
FROM users u
LEFT JOIN orders o ON u.id = o.user_id
GROUP BY u.id, u.name;

Common Optimizations

-- Pagination with OFFSET (slow for large offsets)
SELECT * FROM products ORDER BY id LIMIT 20 OFFSET 1000;

-- Keyset pagination (faster)
SELECT * FROM products
WHERE id > 1000
ORDER BY id
LIMIT 20;

-- EXISTS vs IN
-- EXISTS is often faster for subqueries
SELECT * FROM users u
WHERE EXISTS (
    SELECT 1 FROM orders o
    WHERE o.user_id = u.id
    AND o.total > 100
);

Schema Design

Normalization

-- Avoid data duplication
-- Use foreign keys for relationships
CREATE TABLE orders (
    id SERIAL PRIMARY KEY,
    user_id INTEGER NOT NULL REFERENCES users(id),
    status VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL DEFAULT 'pending',
    created_at TIMESTAMP NOT NULL DEFAULT NOW()
);

Constraints

CREATE TABLE products (
    id SERIAL PRIMARY KEY,
    name VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,
    price DECIMAL(10,2) NOT NULL CHECK (price >= 0),
    sku VARCHAR(50) UNIQUE NOT NULL,
    category_id INTEGER REFERENCES categories(id)
);

Anti-Patterns to Avoid

• SELECT * in production
• Missing indexes on foreign keys
• N+1 query patterns
• Large OFFSET pagination
• Storing arrays/JSON when relations fit better
• Missing NOT NULL constraints
• VARCHAR(255) by default without consideration
• Functions on indexed columns in WHERE