Critical Realism (Bhaskar)

IRON LAW: Observable events (empirical) are a SUBSET of what happens
(actual), which is a SUBSET of what exists (real) — research must go
beyond correlations to identify underlying generative mechanisms.

Key assumptions:

1. Reality exists independently of our knowledge of it (ontological realism)
2. Our knowledge of reality is always fallible and theory-laden (epistemological relativism)
3. Some explanations are better than others (judgmental rationality)
4. Causation is about mechanisms, not constant conjunctions (Humean regularity is insufficient)

Methodology

Step 1: Describe the Phenomenon (Empirical Domain)

Document observable patterns, regularities, and experiences — what do we see happening?

Step 2: Identify Events and Conditions (Actual Domain)

Map the events that occurred whether or not they were observed, including contextual conditions, co-occurring events, and counterfactual absences.

Step 3: Retroduction to Mechanisms (Real Domain)

Use retroductive reasoning: "What must be true for this phenomenon to be possible?" Propose candidate generative mechanisms — structures, powers, and tendencies that could produce the observed events.

Step 4: Assess Mechanism Activation and Context

Analyze how context enables or constrains mechanism activation. Explain why the same mechanism produces different outcomes in different settings (context + mechanism = outcome).

Output Format

## Critical Realist Analysis: [Context]

### Empirical Domain (Experienced)
- Observed patterns: [what we see in the data]
- Measurement instruments: [how we accessed these observations]
- Known limitations: [what we cannot observe directly]

### Actual Domain (Events)
- Events occurred: [including unobserved events inferred from evidence]
- Contextual conditions: [enabling/constraining factors]
- Counterfactuals: [what did NOT happen and why it matters]

### Real Domain (Mechanisms)
| Mechanism | Structure/Power | Tendency | Evidence |
|-----------|----------------|----------|----------|
| [name] | [underlying structure] | [what it tends to produce] | [how we infer it] |

### Context-Mechanism-Outcome Configuration
- Context: [specific conditions]
- Mechanism activated: [which mechanism and why]
- Outcome: [what was produced]

### Implications
1. [What this tells us about underlying reality]
2. [Practical interventions targeting mechanisms, not symptoms]

Gotchas

• Do NOT conflate mechanisms with variables — mechanisms are real structures with causal powers, not statistical predictors
• Retroduction is not induction or deduction — it asks "what must exist" not "what do we observe" or "what follows logically"
• The empirical domain is the smallest layer, yet most research stops here
• Critical realism is a philosophy of science, not a method — it is compatible with qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
• Structure and agency are analytically distinct but temporally intertwined (morphogenetic cycle)
• Avoid the epistemic fallacy: reducing what exists to what we can know

References

• Bhaskar, R. (1975/2008). A Realist Theory of Science. Routledge.
• Sayer, A. (2000). Realism and Social Science. Sage.
• Archer, M. S. (1995). Realist Social Theory: The Morphogenetic Approach. Cambridge University Press.