Audio production concepts, DSP fundamentals, mixing/mastering techniques, and DAW workflows. Bridges modular synthesis philosophy with practical audio engineering. Triggers on audio production, mixing, sound design, DSP, or music technology requests.
Technical foundations for audio production and sound design.
Source → Processing → Summing → Output
[Mic/Synth] → [EQ/Comp/FX] → [Mix Bus] → [Master] → [Playback]
Maintain optimal levels at each stage:
| Stage | Target Level | Headroom |
|---|---|---|
| Recording | -18 to -12 dBFS | 12-18 dB |
| Processing | -18 to -12 dBFS | 12-18 dB |
| Mix Bus | -6 to -3 dBFS | 3-6 dB |
| Master | -1 to -0.3 dBFS | True peak limit |
Rule: If a plugin sounds bad, check your input level first.
| Range | Frequency | Character | Instruments |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sub Bass | 20-60 Hz | Felt, not heard | Kick, bass, 808 |
| Bass | 60-250 Hz | Foundation, warmth | Bass, low vocals |
| Low Mids | 250-500 Hz | Body, mud | Guitars, vocals |
| Mids | 500-2000 Hz | Presence, honk | Vocals, snare |
| Upper Mids | 2-4 kHz | Clarity, harshness | Vocals, guitars |
| Presence | 4-6 kHz | Definition, sibilance | Vocals, cymbals |
| Brilliance | 6-10 kHz | Air, shimmer | Cymbals, strings |
| Air | 10-20 kHz | Sparkle, hiss | Room, breath |
Subtractive First:
Common Problem Areas:
| Issue | Frequency | Action |
|---|---|---|
| Mud | 200-400 Hz | Cut |
| Boxiness | 400-600 Hz | Cut |
| Honk | 800-1000 Hz | Cut |
| Harshness | 2-4 kHz | Cut or dip |
| Sibilance | 5-8 kHz | De-ess or cut |
| Parameter | Function | Typical Range |
|---|---|---|
| Threshold | When compression starts | -30 to 0 dB |
| Ratio | How much compression | 2:1 to 20:1 |
| Attack | How fast it engages | 0.1-100 ms |
| Release | How fast it lets go | 50-1000 ms |
| Knee | Soft/hard transition | 0-12 dB |
| Makeup | Compensate for gain reduction | As needed |
| Style | Attack | Release | Ratio | Use |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Transparent | Fast | Auto | 2-3:1 | Vocals, mix bus |
| Punchy | Slow | Medium | 4-6:1 | Drums, bass |
| Glue | Medium | Slow | 2-4:1 | Mix bus, groups |
| Limiting | Fast | Fast | 10:1+ | Peaks, protection |
| Pumping | Slow | Fast | High | Creative effect |
Trigger Source → Sidechain Input → Compressor → Target
[Kick] → [SC Input] → [Comp on Bass] → [Ducked Bass]
Use for:
| Type | Character | Use |
|---|---|---|
| Room | Small, tight | Drums, guitars |
| Hall | Large, long | Orchestral, pads |
| Plate | Dense, bright | Vocals, snare |
| Chamber | Warm, smooth | Strings, vocals |
| Spring | Bouncy, lo-fi | Guitars, vintage |
| Convolution | Realistic spaces | Film, realism |
| Algorithmic | Controllable | Everything |
| Parameter | Effect |
|---|---|
| Pre-delay | Separation from source (20-80ms typical) |
| Decay/RT60 | Length of tail |
| Size | Room dimensions |
| Damping | High-frequency absorption |
| Diffusion | Density of reflections |
| Mix/Wet | Blend with dry signal |
| Pattern | Timing | Use |
|---|---|---|
| Slapback | 75-150 ms | Vocals, rockabilly |
| Doubling | 20-50 ms | Width, thickness |
| Rhythmic | Tempo-synced | Groove, production |
| Ping-pong | L/R alternating | Width, movement |
| Ambient | Long, diffused | Atmosphere |
Tempo Sync Formula:
ms = 60000 / BPM
1/4 note = 60000 / BPM
1/8 note = 30000 / BPM
1/16 note = 15000 / BPM
Dotted = value × 1.5
Triplet = value × 0.667
┌─────────────┐
│ Master Bus │
└──────┬──────┘
┌───────────────┼───────────────┐
▼ ▼ ▼
┌──────────┐ ┌──────────┐ ┌──────────┐
│ Drum Bus │ │Music Bus │ │Vocal Bus │
└────┬─────┘ └────┬─────┘ └────┬─────┘
│ │ │
┌────┴────┐ ┌────┴────┐ ┌────┴────┐
│K│S│H│OH│ │B│G│K│Pd│ │Ld│BV│Fx│
└─────────┘ └─────────┘ └─────────┘
EQ → Compression → Saturation → Stereo Enhancement → Limiting
| Platform | Target LUFS | True Peak |
|---|---|---|
| Streaming (general) | -14 LUFS | -1 dB |
| Apple Music | -16 LUFS | -1 dB |
| YouTube | -14 LUFS | -1 dB |
| Club/DJ | -6 to -9 LUFS | -0.3 dB |
| Podcast | -16 LUFS | -1 dB |
| Broadcast | -24 LUFS | -2 dB |
| Meter Type | Measures | Use For |
|---|---|---|
| Peak | Instantaneous max | Clipping prevention |
| RMS | Average level | Perceived loudness |
| LUFS | Perceptual loudness | Streaming compliance |
| Phase | L/R correlation | Mono compatibility |
| Spectrum | Frequency content | Balance verification |
| Operation | Effect |
|---|---|
| Gain | Multiply signal amplitude |
| Sum | Add signals together |
| Delay | Time offset (samples) |
| Filter | Frequency-dependent gain |
| Convolution | Apply impulse response |
| Type | Effect | Use |
|---|---|---|
| Low-pass (LPF) | Removes highs | Warmth, lo-fi |
| High-pass (HPF) | Removes lows | Clarity, cleanup |
| Band-pass (BPF) | Isolates range | Radio, telephone |
| Notch | Removes specific freq | Feedback, hum |
| All-pass | Phase shift only | Phasers |
| Comb | Periodic peaks/notches | Flanging |
| Rate | Use | Nyquist |
|---|---|---|
| 44.1 kHz | CD, streaming | 22.05 kHz |
| 48 kHz | Video, broadcast | 24 kHz |
| 88.2 kHz | High-res (2× 44.1) | 44.1 kHz |
| 96 kHz | High-res production | 48 kHz |
| Type | Method | Character |
|---|---|---|
| Subtractive | Filter harmonics | Classic analog |
| Additive | Sum partials | Precise, digital |
| FM | Modulate frequency | Complex, metallic |
| Wavetable | Morph waveforms | Evolving, digital |
| Granular | Micro-samples | Textural, ambient |
| Physical Modeling | Simulate physics | Realistic |
| Sampling | Recorded audio | Any source |
Layer 1: Sub (20-80 Hz) - Foundation
Layer 2: Body (100-400 Hz) - Weight
Layer 3: Character (400-2000 Hz) - Identity
Layer 4: Presence (2-6 kHz) - Cut-through
Layer 5: Air (8-16 kHz) - Sparkle
references/frequency-chart.md - Detailed frequency guidereferences/plugin-chains.md - Common processing chainsreferences/daw-shortcuts.md - DAW workflow tips