Anesthesia Safety

• Examples: mild obesity, controlled diabetes, early renal disease, geriatric without complications
• Anesthetic risk slightly increased
• May require modified protocols, careful monitoring

ASA III: Severe systemic disease

• Examples: uncontrolled diabetes, cardiac disease (murmurs), moderate renal/hepatic disease, anemia (PCV <20%), geriatric with complications
• Significant anesthetic risk
• Requires pre-anesthetic bloodwork, cautious drug selection, intensive monitoring
• Consider regional anesthesia vs. general anesthesia

ASA IV: Severe systemic disease, life-threatening

• Examples: shock, severe dehydration, severe cardiac disease, sepsis, acute renal failure, hemolytic anemia
• Extremely high anesthetic risk
• Postpone elective procedures; emergency only
• IV access mandatory, fluids/vasopressors available, ICU-level monitoring

ASA V: Moribund, not expected to survive without surgery

• Rarely applicable in practice
• Indicates emergency life-saving procedure only

Preoperative Bloodwork Requirements

Minimum Bloodwork (ASA I-II, healthy):

• Age <7 years: baseline preferred but optional for minor procedures
• Age ≥7 years: CBC + chemistry panel (BUN, creatinine, ALT, albumin, glucose)

Recommended Bloodwork (ASA III-IV, geriatric, breed predispositions):

• Complete Blood Count (CBC): PCV (anemia), WBC (infection), platelet count
• Chemistry Panel:
  • BUN/creatinine (renal function; avoid renally metabolized drugs if elevated)
  • ALT (liver function; metabolize anesthetics)
  • Albumin (protein status; affects drug dosing)
  • Glucose (diabetes, stress response)
• Coagulation Screen: If bleeding tendency suspected or giant breeds (DIC risk)
• Cardiac Workup (breed predisposition, geriatric, murmur detected):
  • ECG baseline
  • Echocardiography if structural disease suspected

Abnormalities Requiring Protocol Modification:

• PCV <20%: risk of hypoxemia; slower induction, adequate oxygenation
• BUN >50 or Creatinine >2.5: avoid renally metabolized drugs (some opioids, ACE inhibitors); prolong monitoring
• ALT >5x normal: hepatic dysfunction; reduce anesthetic dose, prolong recovery monitoring
• Albumin <2.0: low protein; reduce drug doses, risk of prolonged effect

Monitoring Parameters and Targets

Required Monitoring Equipment:

• Pulse oximeter (SpO2 target >95%)
• Capnography (ETCO2 target 35-45 mmHg)
• Electrocardiograph (ECG)
• Blood pressure (non-invasive cuff or arterial line)
• Temperature probe (maintain >36.5°C)
• Anesthetic depth monitor (optional but recommended: BIS, entropy)

Target Values During General Anesthesia:

Anesthetic Depth Assessment:

• Loss of pedal withdraw reflex = adequate for surgical plane
• Absence of jaw tone and corneal reflex = normal to deep anesthesia
• Return of reflexes = light plane (increase agent or IV supplementation)
• Twitching, paddling = overly light (movement risk during surgery)

Breed-Specific Anesthetic Risks

Brachycephalic Breeds (Bulldogs, Pugs, Persians, Boston Terriers):

• Risk: Airway obstruction, increased intubation difficulty, post-operative airway edema
• Protocol Modifications:
  • Pre-oxygenate 5-10 minutes before induction
  • Maintain airway patency; have appropriate-sized endotracheal tubes ready
  • Consider awake intubation for severe cases
  • Avoid sedatives that reduce respiratory drive (opioids alone problematic)
  • Elevate head 15-20° to reduce airway swelling
  • Extubate only when fully alert (risk of post-op stridor)
  • Have emergency airway equipment (tracheotomy kit, emergency oxygen)

Sighthound Breeds (Greyhounds, Whippets, Italian Greyhounds, Salukis):

• Risk: Extreme sensitivity to barbiturates and benzodiazepines; prolonged recovery
• Reason: Lean body composition, low body fat, reduced protein binding
• Protocol Modifications:
  • Reduce barbiturate dose by 30-40% if using thiopental (increasingly rare)
  • Prefer opioid + benzodiazepine premedication over barbiturate
  • Use propofol as induction agent (more titratable, shorter action)
  • Avoid methoxyflurane and isoflurane; use sevoflurane
  • Monitor recovery carefully; prolonged wake-up expected
  • No rapid IV boluses; titrate slowly

Giant Breeds (Great Danes, Saint Bernards, Mastiffs):

• Risk: Gastric dilatation-volvulus (GDV), cardiomyopathy, hypothermia, prolonged recovery
• Protocol Modifications:
  • Pre-operative ECG and echocardiography (baseline dysrhythmias common)
  • Minimize preoperative fasting (predisposes to GDV); consider shorter fast periods
  • Careful positioning; avoid gastric compression during procedure
  • Aggressive temperature management (cover extremities, warm IV fluids)
  • Maintain lower anesthetic depth (reduce barbiturate/propofol dose)
  • Monitor for dysrhythmias (premature ventricular contractions common in recovery)

Toy/Small Breeds (Chihuahuas, Toy Poodles):

• Risk: Hypoglycemia (small liver glycogen stores), hypothermia, hypotension
• Protocol Modifications:
  • Minimal fasting (2-3 hours); consider pre-operative glucose check
  • Warm IV fluids; aggressive heat preservation
  • Avoid prolonged procedures
  • Monitor blood glucose in recovery

Pediatric (Young) Patients:

• Risk: Immature hepatic/renal metabolism, hypoglycemia, dehydration sensitivity
• Protocol Modifications:
  • Reduce drug doses (mg/kg often lower than adult)
  • Pre-operative IV fluids (0.9% NaCl at 5-10 mL/kg/hr)
  • Frequent blood glucose monitoring
  • Shorter recovery period expected (metabolically active)

Geriatric Patients (ASA III-IV):

• Risk: Prolonged drug metabolism, cardiovascular compromise, hypothermia
• Protocol Modifications:
  • Pre-operative bloodwork mandatory
  • Reduce induction doses by 25-50%
  • Slower IV drug administration (titrate)
  • Maintain higher body temperature
  • Intensive monitoring; consider ICU-level care
  • Have vasopressors (ephedrine, dobutamine) available

Common Intraoperative Emergencies

Hypotension (Systolic <80 mmHg):

• Causes: Excessive anesthetic depth, vasodilation, pain, blood loss, dehydration
• Immediate Actions:
  1. Reduce/stop anesthetic agent immediately
  2. Increase IV fluid rate (bolus 10-20 mL/kg over 5-10 min if not contraindicated)
  3. Assess oxygenation (SpO2, ETCO2); increase FiO2 to 100%
  4. Check for bleeding; occlude surgical site if actively bleeding
  5. Elevate hindquarters (reverse Trendelenburg) if not contraindicated by surgery
  6. Consider vasopressor: ephedrine (0.05-0.1 mg/kg IV, repeat Q5-10min) or dobutamine infusion
  7. Lighten anesthesia; use local anesthesia blocks if possible

Bradycardia (<60 bpm in dogs, <80 in cats):

• Causes: Vagal stimulation (ocular surgery, abdominal palpation), anesthetic effect, hypothermia
• Immediate Actions:
  1. Reduce anesthetic depth; consider 100% oxygen
  2. Anticholinergic: atropine (0.01-0.02 mg/kg IV) or glycopyrrolate (0.005-0.01 mg/kg IV)
  3. If associated with hypotension: initiate as above + vasopressor
  4. Avoid continued vagal stimulation (pause surgery if possible)

Apnea (No Spontaneous Breathing):

• Causes: Anesthetic overdose, opioid overdose, inadequate reversal
• Immediate Actions:
  1. Ensure airway patent; intubate if not already
  2. Begin manual ventilation at 10-12 breaths/min (dogs), 15-20 (cats)
  3. Reduce/stop anesthetic agent immediately
  4. If opioid-induced: administer naloxone (0.01-0.04 mg/kg IV; may need repeat Q15-30min)
  5. Initiate vasopressor support if hypotensive
  6. Continue ventilation until spontaneous breathing returns

Cardiac Dysrhythmias (Ectopic Beats, Ventricular Fibrillation):

• Causes: Hypoxemia, hypercapnia, electrolyte imbalance, anesthetic sensitivity, catecholamine sensitivity
• Immediate Actions:
  1. Correct underlying cause (oxygenation, ventilation, temperature)
  2. If ventricular fibrillation: begin CPR immediately + defibrillation if available
  3. Administer ACLS drugs: epinephrine (0.01 mg/kg IV), amiodarone (4-5 mg/kg IV)
  4. Continue resuscitation for 15-20 minutes before declaring death

Recovery Monitoring

Immediate Post-Operative (First 2 Hours):

• Monitor heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure, temperature, SpO2 continuously
• Assess ability to maintain airway; extubate when swallowing reflex returns
• Monitor for dysrhythmias (common in first hour; usually benign)
• Maintain normothermia with blankets, warm fluids
• Provide analgesia (pain increases heart rate, blood pressure; impairs recovery)

Extended Recovery (2-24 Hours):

• Monitor for unexpected bleeding, abdominal distension (especially post-abdominal surgery)
• Assess neurological status (return to normal mentation)
• Monitor urine output (post-operative oliguria may indicate shock or AKI)
• Discontinue IV fluids when oral intake tolerated
• Pain assessment; adjust analgesics as needed
• Prevent self-trauma (Elizabethan collar if patient is licking/biting)

Red Flags for Post-Operative Complications:

• Prolonged non-responsiveness >4 hours (possible drug reaction, hypothermia, intracranial trauma)
• Continued respiratory depression or stridor
• Excessive bleeding from incision
• Abdominal swelling or rigid abdomen
• Seizures or behavioral changes
• Hypothermia unresponsive to rewarming

Sources

• AVMA Guidelines on Anesthesia: https://www.avma.org/resources-tools/avma-guidelines (current guidelines)
• Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook (current edition): anesthesia section with breed modifications
• Muir, Hubbell, Bednarski, & Lerche: Handbook of Veterinary Anesthesia (5th edition)
• Grimm et al.: Lumb & Jones' Veterinary Anesthesia & Analgesia (5th edition)
• ASA Physical Status Classification: https://www.asahq.org/standards-and-guidelines

Limitations

• This skill provides framework for risk assessment; individual patient variation is significant
• Anesthetic protocols should be customized by veterinary anesthesiologist or board-certified practitioner
• Emergency management requires hands-on training and immediate access to emergency drugs/equipment
• Monitoring equipment (capnography, ECG) is strongly recommended but not universally available
• Regional anesthesia techniques can reduce general anesthetic requirement; consultation with anesthesia specialist recommended for high-risk patients