Composition

# A tool that does everything
supertool --compress --encrypt --upload --notify --cleanup file.txt

This:

# Compose single-purpose tools
gzip file.txt | gpg -e | aws s3 cp - s3://bucket/file.txt.gz.gpg && notify "done"

Rule 2: Work Together

Programs should be designed to connect. Output of one becomes input of another.

Requirements for composition:

• Text streams as interface (not binary blobs)
• Clean exit codes (0 success, non-zero failure)
• No required interactivity (can be scripted)
• Sensible defaults (work without configuration)

Rule 3: Text Streams Are Universal

"Write programs to handle text streams, because that is a universal interface."

Text is:

• Human-readable (for debugging)
• Tool-friendly (grep, sed, awk work on it)
• Future-proof (no binary format versioning)
• Universal (every language handles strings)

Not this:

# Binary format requiring special tools
myprogram --output-binary data.bin
special-reader data.bin

This:

# Text that any tool can process
myprogram | grep "ERROR" | wc -l

The Knuth Critique

McIlroy's famous response to Knuth's "literate programming" solution shows the philosophy in action.

The problem: Read a file, find the N most common words, print them in decreasing frequency.

Knuth's solution: 10+ pages of literate Pascal, a beautiful essay with a custom data structure.

McIlroy's solution:

tr -cs A-Za-z '\n' |
tr A-Z a-z |
sort |
uniq -c |
sort -rn |
sed ${1}q

Six lines. Uses existing tools. Immediately understandable to any Unix user.

The Lesson

"Knuth has shown us here how to program intelligently, but I claim that his exercise is not software engineering."

Engineering is not just writing correct code. It's solving problems with appropriate tools. Sometimes that means writing nothing new at all.

Design Principles

Small Is Beautiful

"Make each program do one thing well. To do a new job, build afresh rather than complicate old programs by adding new features."

Not this:

class DataProcessor:
    def load(self): ...
    def validate(self): ...
    def transform(self): ...
    def filter(self): ...
    def aggregate(self): ...
    def format(self): ...
    def output(self): ...
    # 2000 lines, handles everything

This:

# Separate programs, composed
load data.csv | validate | transform | filter | aggregate | format > output.json

Silence Is Golden

"Rule of Silence: When a program has nothing surprising to say, it should say nothing."

Not this:

$ cp file.txt backup/
Copying file.txt to backup/...
Checking permissions...
Creating backup directory if needed...
Copy complete!
Success!

This:

$ cp file.txt backup/
$

No news is good news. Only speak on error or when asked (-v).

Fail Fast and Loudly

Exit immediately on error. Don't try to continue. Return non-zero exit codes.

#!/bin/bash
set -e  # Exit on error
set -u  # Error on undefined variables
set -o pipefail  # Fail if any pipeline command fails

# Now failures are obvious, not hidden

Prototype Early

"Rule of Optimization: Prototype before polishing. Get it working before you optimize it."

Build the pipeline first. Optimize only the slow parts.

Interface Design

Filters, Not Programs

The ideal Unix tool is a filter: reads stdin, writes stdout, configurable via arguments.

# Good: Works as filter
cat data.txt | mytool --option | head

# Good: Also works with file arguments
mytool --option data.txt | head

# Bad: Requires interactive prompts
mytool
> Enter filename:
> Enter option:

Consistent Conventions

Follow existing conventions:

• -h / --help for help
• -v / --verbose for verbosity
• -q / --quiet for silence
• -o / --output for output file
• - for stdin/stdout
• -- to end option parsing

Useful Defaults

Work without configuration. Sane defaults for everything.

# Should just work
mytool file.txt

# Options are optional
mytool --format=json --limit=10 file.txt

The McIlroy Test

Before committing a tool or interface, ask:

1. Does it do one thing? Could I describe it in one sentence without "and"?
2. Can it compose? Can I pipe output to another tool?
3. Does it use text? Or does it require special parsers?
4. Is it silent on success? Does it only speak when needed?
5. Does it fail loudly? Non-zero exit on error, clear messages?
6. Could existing tools do this? Am I reinventing sort, grep, awk?
7. Does it follow conventions? Standard flags, standard behavior?

When Reviewing Code

Apply these checks:

• Program does one thing (describable without "and")
• Works as a filter (stdin/stdout support)
• Text-based interface (not custom binary)
• Silent on success (verbose only when asked)
• Fails fast with non-zero exit codes
• Follows standard conventions (--help, -v, etc.)
• Sensible defaults (works without configuration)
• Could compose with other tools in a pipeline
• Not reinventing standard Unix tools

Composition Patterns

Pipeline

cat data | step1 | step2 | step3 > result

Fan-out

cat data | tee >(step1 > result1) >(step2 > result2) > /dev/null

Conditional

step1 data && step2 || handle_error

Parallel

cat files.txt | xargs -P4 -I{} process {}

When NOT to Use This Skill

Use a different skill when:

• Building distributed systems → Use distributed (statelessness, idempotency, failure handling)
• Optimizing performance → Use optimization (profiling, cache behavior, data-oriented)
• Writing kernel code → Use data-first (kernel style, data structures)
• Writing Go code → Use simplicity (Go Proverbs, interfaces)
• General application clarity → Use clarity (readability, naming)
• Building GUIs or web apps → McIlroy's philosophy is for CLI tools, not interactive applications

McIlroy is the CLI/Unix tool skill—use it when building filters, utilities, and pipeable commands.

Sources

• McIlroy, "A Research Unix Reader: Annotated Excerpts from the Programmer's Manual" (1987)
• McIlroy, Bell System Technical Journal on Unix (1978)
• McIlroy, "Knuth Critique" - letter to CACM (1986)
• Kernighan & Pike, "The Unix Programming Environment" (1984)
• Raymond, "The Art of Unix Programming" (2003) - modern synthesis

"The notion of 'intricate and beautiful complexities' is almost an oxymoron. Unix programmers vie with each other for 'simple and beautiful.'" — Doug McIlroy